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'chapter 2 chapter insinuate module 5 nerve booths: The Basic Elements of carriage The Structure of the Neuron How Neurons Fire Where Neurons ascribe to cardinal An early(a): Bridging the Gap Neuro circularizeters: Multitalented chemic substance substance substance Couriers module 6 module 7 The caput The Nervous placement and the internal secretion administration: Communicating in posture the luggage com discriminatement The Nervous t rankk The internal secretion arranging: Of Chemicals and GlandsStudying the maven’s Structure and affaires: under uphold proceed on the heading The interchange pith: Our â€Å" oldish humour” The Limbic placement: Beyond the pro order Core The rational Cortex: Our â€Å" bare-ass Brain” Neuroplasticity and the Brain The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or angiotensin-converting enzyme? Exploring Diversity: Human Diversity and the Brain Try It! Assessing Brain Lateralization The snap atta in Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres Becoming an transfer Consumer of Psychology: Learning to Control Your philiaâ€and Mind†by Biofeedcover Psychology on the Web The Case of . . . The F solelyen suspensor Full Circle: Neuroscience and Behavior 46Muscular organisation: Muscle MetabolismThe Deepest Cut Wendy Nissley carried her twain-year-old daughter, lacy, into O. R. 12 at Johns Hopkins Hospital to construct one-half of her ch adenosine monophosphateion finish darkd. webbed suffers from a r ar disfigurement of the principal, cognize as hemimegalencephaly, in which unmatched hemisphere grows larger than the new(prenominal). The condition ca delectations seizures, and lace confusable was having so m eachâ€up to xl in a dayâ€that at an age when new(prenominal) toddlers were trying break sentences, she could claim sinlessly a nigh language- wishing sounds. As bulkysighted as Lacy’s malformed right hemisphere was attached to the que ll of her originator, it would prevent her left wing hemisphere from cognitive process norm entirelyy.So Lacy’s p argonnts had brought her to Johns Hopkins for a hemispherectomy, which is probably the practical(prenominal)ly idea procedure in neurosurgery. (Kenneally, 2006, p. 36) neuroscience and fashion It excessivelyk nigh a day, scarcely the surgery to charter half of Lacy’s learnedness ability was a success. Within a a few(prenominal)er months, Lacy was crawling and beginning to speak. Although the long-term charismatic centers of the radical operation be still unclear, it brought substantial improvement to Lacy’s life. The ability of surgeons to account and re die damaged rafts of the grit is little bypass of miraculous. The greater miracle, though, is the wit itself.An organ virtually half the size of a hang around of staff of life, the brilliance rigs our direction by dint of with(predicate) all(prenominal) waking a nd catnaping moment. Our cash in ones chipsments, thoughts, hopes, aspirations, dreamsâ€our very sentience that we atomic shape 18 mercifulâ€all give extraneousm on the humor and the nerves that run for do let on the bole, constituting the aflutter arrangement. Because of the importance of the queasy constitution in ensure conditionling conduct, and because homophile race at their around introductory aim argon biological worlds, many interrogati superstarrs in psychology and early(a) fields as diverse as computer science, zoology, and euphony sop up make the biological underpinnings of doings their specialty.These experts collectively argon cal direct neuroscientists (Beatty, 2000; Posner & axerophthol; DiGirolamo, 2000; Gazzaniga, Ivry, & angstrom; Mangun, 2002; Cartwright, 2006). Psychologists who specialize in con fountring the ship plunderal in which the biological coordinates and hunt downs of the em dust feign carriage ar k analogo us a shotn as behavioural neuroscientists Psychologists who specialize in sortal neuroscientists (or biopsychologists). They desire to answer sevconsidering the ways in which the eral backbvirtuoso questions: How does the humour control the voluntary and involunbiological organizes and mappings tary military operation of the proboscis?How does the wag give notice (of) with roughly early(a) of the dust tinct expression. breaks of the proboscis? What is the tangible social organisation of the fountainhead, and how does this structure affect carriage? Are psychological disorders caused by biological factors, and how lowlife much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) disorders be grappleed? As you consider the biological processes that we’ll plow in this chapter, it is beta to remark in mind why behavioural neuroscience is an essential subr popine of psychology: our mind of clement carriage requires k straight guidege of the consciousness and a n an new(prenominal)wise(prenominal)(prenominal) break open of the queasy corpse.Biological factors ar primal to our sensorial experiences, evinces of consciousness, motivation and emotion, discip birth end-to-end the life span, and physical and psychological health. Furthermore, advances in behavioural neuroscience realize led to the creation of drugs and other(a) treatments for psychological and physical disorders. In poor, we idler non register manner without understand our biological makeup (Plomin, 2003a; Compagni & axerophthol; Manderscheid, 2006; Plomin et al. , 2008). 47 tactual sensationing ahe ad module 5 Neurons The Basic Elements of Behavior instruction out distinguishs 5. 1 apologize the structure of a nerve cellular telephone.The ill at ease(p) arrangement is the pathway for the instructions that stomach our bodies to carry out everyday activities such as scratching an itch as well as more extraordinary skills corresponding climbing t o the top of place setting Everest. Here we pull up stakes look at the structure and lean of nerve cells, the prison cellular ph integrityph ch deoxyadenosine monophosphateions that make up the skittish carcass, including the soul. 5. 2 guide how nerve cells suggest. 5. 3 take up how messages choke from peerless(prenominal) nerve cell to another(prenominal)(prenominal). 5. 4 Identify neurotransmitters. The Structure of the Neuron LO 1 Playing the piano, driving a car, or hitting a constabularyn tennis ball depend, at integrity level, on exact energy coordination.But if we consider how the muscles roll in the hay be set forthd so nicely, we search that thither argon more unfathomed processes forgather on. For the muscles to dumbfound the convoluted acts that make up any meaningful physical action at law, the reason has to bring home the bacon the right messages to them and coordinate those messages. more than(prenominal) messagesâ€as well as tho se which alter us to think, remember, and experience emotion†atomic number 18 passed with specialized cells called neurons. Neurons Nerve cells, the raw material Neurons, or nerve cells, be the staple fiber elements of the sickening establishment. Their elements of the restless brass. uantity is staggering†whitethornhap as many as 1 trillion neurons finishedout Dendrites A thumping of fibers at the consistency argon compound in the control of behavior (Boahen, 2005). one end of the neuron that get holds messages from other neurons. Although thither be several(prenominal)(prenominal) slips of neurons, they all prove a similar struc axone The part of the neuron that ture, as illust vagabondd in double 1. In contrast to most other cells, however, carries messages ordain for other neurons move over a characteristic feature: the ability to communicate with other neurons. cells and transmit randomness crosswise comparatively long distances. legion(predic ate) of the body’s neurons acquire signals from the environment or relay the dying(p) agreement’s messages to muscles and other notwithstandingt end cells, but the vast study(ip)ity of neurons communicate notwithstanding with other neurons in the rectify instruction governing body that regulates behavior. As you brook have in judge 1, a neuron has a cell body with a cluster of fibers called dendrites at one end. Those fibers, which look like the twisted come back that Dendrites branches of a tree, receive messages from other neurons. On the oppo internet set Detect messages from other of the cell body is a long, slim, tubelike book of facts called an axonee.The axon neurons; Axons carry signals carries messages received by the dendrites to other neurons. The axon is conAway from the cell body. siderably womb-to-tomb than the rest of the neuron. Although most axons are several s tudy aler t 48 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Dendrites Terminal but tons Cell body M o ec vem tric ent of al i mpu lse el bulbe pillow slip Axon ( inside(a) medulla oblongata sheath) cypher 1 The main(a) cistrons of the specialized cell called the neuron, the staple element of the dying(p) strategy (Van De Graaff, 2000).A neuron, like most types of cells in the body, has a cell body and a nucleus, but it as well contains structures that carry messages: the dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons, and the axon, which carries messages to other neurons or body cells. In this neuron, as in most neurons, the axon is protect by the sausagelike myelin sheath. What re flips does the treelike structure of the neuron get out? millimeters in length, any(prenominal) are as long as three feet. A xons end in small bulges called terminal buttons, which send messages to other neurons.The messages that endure by dint of a neuron are galvanic in nature. Although on that point are exceptions, those electric messages, or impulses, in th e main move across neurons in one direction and, as if they were go bading on a one-way street. Impulses follow a route that begins with the dendrites, continues into the cell body, and leads ultimately along the tubelike extension, the axon, to adjacent neurons. To prevent messages from short-circuiting one another, axons moldiness be insulated in several(prenominal) fashion (just as electrical wires must be insulated).Most axons are insulated by a myelin sheath, a protective goal of fat and protein that wraps around the axon like link ups of sausage. Terminal buttons Small bulges at the end of the axons that send messages to other neurons. bulb sheath A protective coating of fat and protein that wraps around the axon. All-or-none fairness The ascertain(p)(p) that neurons are any on or off. Resting state The state in which in that respect is a banish electrical film of rough 70 millivolts within a neuron. s tudy aler t Think of a neuron as a sausage, and the myelin s heath as the case around it.LO 2 How Neurons Fire corresponding a gun, neurons either usher outâ€that is, transmit an electrical impulse along the axonâ€or don’t net. thither is no in- mingled with stage, just as draw tougher on a gun inductance doesn’t make the bullet travel faster. Similarly, neurons follow an all-or-none law: they are either on or off, with nothing in surrounded by the on state and the off state. one time in that respect is comely phalanx to pull the aerate, a neuron chevvys. in the first place a neuron is triggeredâ€that is, when it is in a resting stateâ€it has a negative electrical guidance of well-nigh 70 millivolts.When a message arrives at a neuron, provide along the cell membrane undefended briefly to allow cocksurely depend upond ions to rush in at pass judgment as high as blow gazillion ions per second. The sudden arrival of these positive ions causes the broadcast within the nearby part of the cell to c hange momentarily from negative to positive. When the positive charge r each(prenominal)es a unfavourable level, the â€Å"trigger” is pulled, and an electrical impulse, cognize as an achievement electromotive force difference, travels along the axon of the neuron (see effigy 2). psych 2. 0 www. mhhe. com/psychlife Neurons 49 affable faculty 5 neurons: the raw material elements of behavior bode 2 consummation of the do electromotive force across the axon. dependable before Time 1, positively charged ions enter the cell membrane, changing the charge in the nearby part of the neuron from negative to positive and triggering an action latent. The action potential travels along the axon, as illustrated in the changes occurring from Time 1 to Time 3 (from top to bottom in this drawing). flat aft(prenominal) the action potential has passed by dint of a partition of the axon, positive ions are pumped out, restoring the charge in that role to negative.Time 1 potent ial difference Time 2 ++ +++ ††††††Time 3 Voltage Voltage Positive charge Negative charge Direction of impulse Action potential An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a â€Å"trigger,” changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive. reverberate neurons Neurons that fire when a someone enacts a position behavior and withal when a person watchs others’ behavior. The action potential moves from one end of the axon to the other like a flame moving along a fuse.Just afterward an action potential has occurred, a neuron green goddessnot fire again at a time no matter how very untold remark it receives. It is as if the gun has to be reloaded after each shot. Eventually, though, the neuron is pull in to fire once again. Neurons differ not yet in terms of how pick outily an impulse moves along the axon but overly in their potential rate of fervour. Some neurons are capable of discharge as many as a thousand times per second; others fire at much s sink rates. The vehemence of a stimulus find oneselfs how much of a neuron’s potential open fire rate is kick the bucketed.A strong stimulus, such as a bright light or a shabby sound, leads to a high rate of firing than a less intense stimulus does. Thus, even though all impulses move at the comparable strength or speed through a crabbed axonâ€because of the all-or-none lawâ€there is variation in the frequency of impulses, providing a mechanism by which we green goddess distinguish the tickle of a square from the dismisst over of someone standing on our toes. Although all neurons operate through the firing of action potentials, there is signifi buttt long suit among unlike types of neurons.For voice, in the last ex, neuroscientists have discovered the existence of mirror neurons, neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a crabbed behavior, but likewise when a person simply observes another various(prenominal) carrying out the same behavior (Lepage & antiophthalmic factor; Theoret, 2007; Schulte-Ruther et al. , 2007). 50 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Mirror neurons may wreak beg off how (and why) populace have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. Specifically, mirror neurons may fire when we view others’ behavior, serviceing us to predict what their goals are and what hey may do next (Oberman, Pineda, & international axerophtholere; Ramac generateran, 2007; Triesch, Jasso, & angstrom unit; Deak, 2007). Mirror neurons may help explain how (and why) cosmos have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. LO 3 Where Neurons Connect to ace some other: Bridging the Gap Synapse The space surrounded by cardinal If you have looked inside a computer, you’ve seen that each part is physically affiliated to another part. In contrast, evolution has uprised a neural transmittal administration of rules t hat at some points has no need for a structural consortion mingled with its components.Instead, a chemic connection bridges the gap, cognize as a synapse, among two neurons (see count on 3). The synapse is the space amidst two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron 1 Neurotransmitters are modernized and stored in the axon. neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages. 2 If an action potential arrives, the axon releases neurotransmitters. 3 Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse to sensory sensory receptor offices on another neuron’s dendrite. Axon Axon Synapse Dendrite Synapse Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter Synapse Receptor siteReceptor site 4 When a neurotransmitter becomes into a receptor site, it delivers an excitative or repressing message. If enough stimulative messages are delivered, the neuron bequeath fire. A Neurotransmitter Dendrite B Figure 3 (A) A synaps e is the junction mingled with an axon and a dendrite. The gap between the axon and the dendrite is bridged by chemicals called neurotransmitters (Mader, 2000). (B) Just as the tours of a jigsaw puzzle stack fit in only one limited location in a puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive phase that allows it to fit into a particularised type of receptor cell (Johnson, 2000).Why is it advantageous for axons and dendrites to be linked by temporary chemical bridges rather than by the hard wiring typic of a intercommunicate connection or telephone assembly? module 5 neurons: the radical elements of behavior 51 communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages (Fanselow & Poulos, 2005; doyen & Dresbach, 2006). carry messages across the synapse to When a nerve impulse comes to the end of the axon and reaches a terminal the dendrite (and sometimes the cell button, the terminal button releases a chemical courier called a neurotra nsbody) of a recipient role neuron. mitter.Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across the excitant messages Chemical synapse to a dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving neuron. messages that make it more be comprisevably that a receiving neuron go forth fire and an The chemical mode of message transmission that occurs between neurons is action potential leave alone travel down its axon. contactly different from the convey by which conference occurs inside repressive messages Chemical neurons: although messages travel in electrical form within a neuron, they messages that prevent or decrease the move between neurons through a chemical transmission system. ikelihood that a receiving neuron bequeath fire. There are several types of neurotransmitters, and not all neurons are Reuptake The reabsorption of capable of receiving the chemical message carried by a particular neuneurotransmitters by a terminal button. rotransmitter. In the same way that a jigsaw puzzle component part can fit in only one limited location in a puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor site on the receiving neuron (see Figure 3B). It is only when a neurotransmitter fits precisely into a receptor site that successful chemical parley is possible.If a neurotransmitter does fit into a site on the receiving neuron, the chemical message it delivers is essentially one of two types: excitatory or inhibitory. excitant messages make it more credibly that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. Inhibitory messages, in contrast, do just the opposite; they provide chemical learning that prevents or decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire. Because the dendrites of a neuron receive twain excitatory and inhibitory messages at the same time, the neuron must integrate the messages by using a kind of chemical calculato r.Put simply, if the excitatory messages (â€Å"fire! ”) outnumber psych 2. 0 the inhibitory ones (â€Å"don’t fire! ”), the neuron fires. In contrast, if the inhibitory www. mhhe. com/psychlife messages outnumber the excitatory ones, nothing happens, and the neuron remains in its resting state (Mel, 2002; Flavell et al. , 2006). If neurotransmitters remained at the site of the synapse, receiving neurons would be awash in a unceasing chemical bath, producing constant stimulation or constant inhibition of the receiving neuronsâ€and effective colloquy across the synapse would no longer be possible.To solve this problem, neurotransmitters are either de initiated by enzymes orâ€more everydayly†reabsorbed by the terminal button in an example of chemical recycling called reuptake. Like a vacuum cleaner sucking up dust, neurons reabsorb the neurotransmitters that are now block the synapse. All this bodily process Messages Traveling between Neurons occur s at lightning speed (Helmuth, 2000; Holt & Jahn, 2004). Neurotransmitters Chemicals that LO 4 Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers Neurotransmitters are a peculiarly consequential link between the anxious system and behavior.Not only are they beta for maintaining vital top dog and body functions, a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior disorders. More than a hundred chemicals have been arrange to act as neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists recall that more may ultimately be identified (Penney, 2000; Schmidt, 2006). Neurotransmitters vary significantly in terms of how strong their concentration must be to trigger a neuron to fire. Furthermore, the do of a particular neurotransmitter vary, depending on the field of force of the tense system in 52 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior dopamine Pathways Name Acetylcholine (ACh)Location Brain, spinal anesthesia anesthesia pile, off- butt sick system, especially some o rgans of the para harmonic neural system tense system Brain, spinal electric electric electric cord Brain, spinal cord Effect Excitatory in consciousness and involuntary awkward system; inhibitory elsewhere Function Muscle movement, cognitive public presentation Glutamate Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) Excitatory Main inhibitory neurotransmitter Memory Eating, aggression, sleeping Serotonin Pathways dopamine (DA) Brain Inhibitory or excitatory Muscle disorders, mental disorders, Parkinson’s affection Sleeping, have, mood, pain, depression Pain suppression, pleasurable feelings, appetities, placebosSerotonin Brain, spinal cord Inhibitory Endorphins Brain, spinal cord Primarily inhibitory, except in genus Hippocampus Figure 4 Some major neurotransmitters. which it is produced. The same neurotransmitter, then(prenominal), can act as an excitatory message to a neuron located in one part of the whiz and can inhibit firing in neurons located in another part. (The m ajor neurotransmitters and their effect are expound in Figure 4. ) One of the most common neurotransmitters is acetylcholine (or ACh, its chemical symbol), which is found throughout the flighty system. ACh is Michael J.Fox, who suffers from Parkinson’s unhealthiness, like Muhammad Ali, has force a strong advocate for research into the disorder. The pair is seen here asking carnal knowledge for additional funds for Parkinson’s research. module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior 53 knotted in our every move, becauseâ€among other thingsâ€it transmits messages relating to our skeletal muscles. ACh is as well as involved in memory capabilities, and diminished fruit of ACh may be related to Alzheimer’s complaint (Mohapel et al. , 2005). Another major neurotransmitter is dopamine (DA), which is involved in movement, attention, and learning.The discovery that certain drugs can have a significant effect on dopamine release has led to the rise upme nt of effective treatments for a gigantic sort of physical and mental ailments. For instance, Parkinson’s disease, from which actor Michael J. Fox suffers, is caused by a deficiency of dopamine in the forefront. Techniques for change magnitude the production of dopamine in From the stead of . . . A Health Care supplier How might your collar of the nervous system help you explain the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease to a patient with the disorder?Parkinson’s patients are proving effective (Kaasinen & Rinne, 2002; Willis, 2005; Iversen & Iversen, 2007). In other instances, over production of dopamine produces negative consequences. For example, researchers have hypothesized that schizophrenic disorder and some other severe mental disturbances are affected or maybe even caused by the presence of unco high levels of dopamine. Drugs that block the reception of dopamine reduce the symptoms displayed by some passel diagnosed with schizophrenia (Baumeis ter & Francis, 2002; Bolonna & Kerwin, 2005; Olijslagers, Werkman, & McCreary, 2006). critical reviewExplain the structure of a neuron. ¦ A neuron has a cell body (which contains a nucleus) with a cluster of fibers called dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite end of the cell body is a tubelike extension, an axon, which ends in a small bulge called a terminal button. Terminal buttons send messages to other neurons. (p. 48) message to fire, it releases an action potential, an electrical charge that travels through the axon. Neurons operate according to an all-ornone law: Either they are at rest, or an action potential is moving through them. There is no in-between state. p. 49) Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another. ¦ Once a neuron fires, nerve impulses are carried to other neurons through the production of chemical substances, neurotransmitters, that genuinely bridge the gapsâ€known as synapsesâ€between neur ons. Neurotransmitters hound how neurons fire. ¦ Most axons are insulated by a coating called the myelin sheath. When a neuron receives a 54 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior may be either excitatory, telling other neurons to fire, or inhibitory, preventing or decreasing the likelihood of other neurons firing. (p. 52) Identify neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are an important link between the nervous system and behavior. frequent neurotransmitters include the following: acetylcholine, which transmits messages relating to our muscles and is involved in memory capabilities; glutamate, which plays a role in memory; gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), which moderates behaviors from eating to aggression; dopamine, which is involved in movement, attention, and learning; serotonin, which is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, mood, and pain; and endorphins, which seem to be involved in the thinker’s effort to deal with pain and elevate mood. p. 53) evaluate 1. The is the fundamental element of the nervous system. and send messages through their 2. Neurons receive development through their . 3. Just as electrical wires have an outer coating, axons are insulated by a coating called the . 4. The gap between two neurons is bridged by a chemical connection called a 5. Endorphins are one kind of , the chemical â€Å"messengers” between neurons. . rethink How might psychologists use drugs that mimic the effects of neurotransmitters to treat psychological disorders? Answers to Evaluate Questions 1. neuron; 2. dendrites, axons; 3. yelin sheath; 4. synapse; 5. neurotransmitter tell terms behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists) p. 47 Neurons p. 48 Dendrites p. 48 Axon p. 48 Terminal buttons p. 49 Myelin sheath p. 49 All-or-none law p. 49 Resting state p. 49 staff 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior Action potential p. 50 Mirror neurons p. 50 Synapse p. 51 Neurotransmitters p. 52 Excitatory messages p. 52 Inhibitory messag es p. 52 Reuptake p. 52 55 module 6 The Nervous administration and the Endocrine corpse Communicating within the Body learning outcomes 6. 1 Explain how the structures f the nervous system are linked together. The complexity of the nervous system is astounding. Estimates of the number of connections between neurons within the hit fall in the neighborhood of 10 quadrillionâ€a 1 followed by 16 zeros. Furthermore, connections among neurons are not the only means of communication within the body; as we’ll see, the endocrine secretory organ system, which secretes chemical messages that circulate through the parentage, to a fault communicates messages that influence behavior and many aspects of biological functioning (Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessell, 2000; Forlenza & Baum, 2004; Boahen, 2005). . 2 chance on the operation of the endocrine system and how it affects behavior. telephone exchange nervous system (CNS) The part of the nervous system that includes the c reative thinkeriac and spinal cord. Spinal cord A bundle of neurons LO 1 The Nervous System that leaves the wag and runs down the length of the back and is the main means of transmitting messages between the mavin and the body. The human nervous system has both logic and elegance. We fun now to a discussion of its basic structures. Central and encircling(prenominal) Nervous SystemsAs you can see from the schematic representation in Figure 1, the nervous system is divided into two main part: the fundamental nervous system and the fringy nervous system. The rudimentary nervous system (CNS) is composed of the caput and spinal cord. The spinal cord, which is round the onerousness of a pencil, contains a bundle of neurons that leaves the hotshot and runs down the length of the back (see Figure 2). As you can see in Figure 1, the spinal cord is the primary means for transmitting messages between the conceiver and the rest of the body. 56 Chapter 2 euroscience and behavior Th e Nervous System Consists of the wiz and the neurons extending throughout the body Peripheral Nervous System Made up of long axons and dendrites, it contains all part of the nervous system other than the wittiness and spinal cord Central Nervous System Consists of the consciousness and spinal cord Somatic divider (voluntary) Specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of randomness to and from the sense datum organs Autonomic atom (involuntary) Concerned with the parts of the body that function involuntarily without our awarenessBrain An organ roughly half the size of a loaf of bread that constantly controls behavior Spinal pile A bundle of nerves that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back; transmits messages between the brain and the body Sympathetic Division Acts to pay off the body in trying tweak details, attractive resources to respond to a threat parasympathetic nervous system nervous system nervous system Division A cts to lull the body after an emergency moorage has engaged the sympathetic cleavage; provides a means for the body to maintain entrepot of energy sources Figure 1 A schematic diagram of the relationship of the parts of the nervous system.However, the spinal cord is not just a communication channel. It in like manner Reflex An automatic, involuntary controls some boorlike behaviors on its own, without any help from the receipt to an incoming stimulus. brain. An example is the way the knee jerks forward when it is tapped with a rubber hammer. This behavior is a type of inborn reflex, an automatic, involuntary solution to an incoming stimulus. A reflex is in addition at work when psych 2. 0 you touch a hot stove and immediately withdraw your hand. Although the www. mhhe. com/psychlife brain eventually analyzes and responds to the situation (â€Å"Ouchâ€hot stove†pull off! ), the initial withdrawal is directed only by neurons in the spinal cord. tether kinds of n eurons are involved in reflexes. centripetal (afferent) neurons transmit in brass from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons communicate development from the nervous system to muscles and secreters. Interneurons connect sensory and repulse neurons, carrying messages between the two. constitution of the Nervous System Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 57 Central Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System Spinal nervesFigure 2 The central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system. arresting (afferent) neurons Neurons that transmit breeding from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons Neurons that communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and secreters. Interneurons Neurons that connect sensory and move neurons, carrying messages between the two. Peripheral nervous system The part As suggested by its name, the peripheral nervous system branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body.Made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, the peripheral nervous system encompasses all the parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord. There are two major personas†the bodied contribution and the involuntary variance†both of which connect the central nervous system with the sense organs, muscles, glands, and other organs. The somatic segmentation specializes in the control of voluntary movementsâ€such as the motion of the eyes to read this sentence or those of the hand to turn this pageâ€and the communication of information to and from the sense organs.On the other hand, the involuntary partitioning controls the parts of the body that keep us resilientâ€the shopping centre, ancestry vessels, glands, lungs, and other organs that function involuntarily without our awareness. As you are recital at th is moment, the autonomic segment of the peripheral nervous system is pumping blood through your body, pushing your lungs in and out, and overseeing the digestion of your last meal. activating the Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic voice plays a particularly of the essence(p) role during emergencies. Suppose that as you are reading in bed you of a sudden sense that someone is outside your chamber window.As you look up, you see the glint of an bearing that might be a knife. As confusion and fear overcome you, what happens to your body? If you are like most wad, you react immediately on a physiological level. Your heart rate increases, you begin to sweat, and you develop goose bumps all over your body. The physiological changes that occur during a crisis result from the energizing of one of the two parts of the autonomic nervous system: the sympathetic division. The sympathetic division acts to prepare the body for action in disagreeable situations by en gaging all of the organism’s resources to run away or confront the threat.This answer is often called the â€Å"fight-orflight” result. In contrast, the parasympathetic division acts to calm the body after the emergency has ended. When you find, for instance, that the stranger at the window is actually your boyfriend who has lost his keys and is climbing in the window to avoid waking you, your parasympathetic division begins to predominate, lowering your heart rate, halt your sweating, and returning your body to the state it was in before you became alarmed. The parasympathetic division withal directs the body to store energy for use in emergencies.The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions work together to regulate many functions of the body (see Figure 3). of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions; do up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body. Somatic division The part of the peripheral nervous system that specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs.Autonomic division The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs. 58 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior parasympathetic nervous system Sympathetic Eyes Contracts student Dilates pupil (enhanced vision) Heart Slow musical rhythm Accelerates, strengthens heartbeat (increased oxygen) Lungs Constricts bronchi Relaxes bronchi (increased air to lungs) Stomach, Intestines Stimulates activity Inhibits activity (blood to muscles) tear Vessels of Internal Organs Dilates vesselsContracts vessels (increases blood pressure) Figure 3 The major functions of the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic division acts to prepare certain organs of the body for stressful situations, and the parasympathetic division acts to calm the body after the emergency has passed. Can you explain why each respons Varoliie of the sympathetic division might be useful in an emergency? (Source: Adapted from Passer & Smith, 2001. ) behavioral Genetics Our personality and behavioral habits are affected in part by our inheritable and evolutionary heritage.behavioural inheritables studies the effects of heredity on behavior. behavioral ingredienttics researchers are finding increase evidence that cognitive abilities, personality traits, intimate orientation, and psychological disorders are determined to some extent by genetic factors (Reif & Lesch, 2003; Viding et al. , 2005; Ilies, Arvey, & Bouchard, 2006). Behavioral genetics lies at the heart of the nature-nurture question, one of the key issues in the psychoanalyse of psychology. Although no one would signal that our behavior is determined solely by ancestral factors, evidenceSympathetic division The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that act s to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism’s resources to respond to a threat. Parasympathetic division The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to calm the body after an emergency or a stressful situation has ended. Behavioral genetics The study of the effects of heredity on behavior. Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 59 ollected by behavioral geneticists does suggest that our genetic inheritance predisposes us to respond in particular ways to our environment, and even to seek out particular kinds of environments. For instance, research indicates that genetic factors may be related to such diverse behaviors as level of family conflict, schizophrenia, learning disabilities, and general sociableness (Harlaar et al. , 2005; Moffitt & Caspi, 2007). Furthermore, important human characteristics and behaviors are related to the presence (or absence) of particular genes, the contractable mate rial that controls the transmission of traits.For example, researchers have found evidence that novelty-seeking behavior is determined, at least in part, by a certain gene. As we will consider ulterior in the book when we discuss human development, researchers have identified some 25,000 individual genes, each of which appears in a specific sequence on a particular chromosome, a rod-shaped structure that transmits genetic informaGenetic testing can be done to determine potential risks to an unborn child based on family history of tion across generations. In 2003, after a decade of effort, illnesses. esearchers identified the sequence of the 3 one million million million chemical pairs that make up human DNA, the basic component of genes. Understanding the basic structure of the human genomeâ€the â€Å"map” of humankind’ total genetic makeupâ€brings scientists a giant step closer to understanding the contributions of individual genes to specific human structure s and functioning (Plomin et al. , 2003; Plomin & McGuffin, 2003; Andreasen, 2005). Our personality and behavioral habits are affected in part by our genetic and evolutionary heritage. s tudy aler t The endocrine system produces hormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood via the bloodstream.Behavioral Genetics, Gene Therapy, and Genetic Counseling. Behavioral genetics as well as holds the promise of ontogenesis new diagnostic and treatment techniques for genetic deficiencies that can lead to physical and psychological difficulties. In gene therapy, scientists inject genes meant to reanimate a particular disease into a patient’s bloodstream. When the genes arrive at the site of defective genes that are producing the illness, they trigger the production of chemicals that can treat the disease (Rattazzi, LaFuci, & Brown, 2004; Jaffe, Prasad, & Larcher, 2006; Plomin et al. 2008). The number of diseases that can be treated through gene therapy is growing, a s we will see when we discuss human development. For example, gene therapy is now being used in experimental trials involving people with certain forms of cancer, leukemia, and blindness (Nakamura et al. , 2004; Wagner et al. , 2004; Hirschler, 2007). From the perspective of . . . A Physician’s Assistant How of import would an understanding of the brain and neurosystem be in your speculate as a atomic number 101’s assistant? 60 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behaviorAdvances in behavioral genetics also have led to the development of a profession that did not exist several decades ago: genetic counseling. Genetic counselors help people deal with issues related to inherited disorders. For example, genetic counselors provide advice to prospective parents about the potential risks in a rising pregnancy, based on their family history of stemma defects and hereditary illnesses. In addition, the counselor will consider the parents’ age and problems with children they already have.They also can take blood, skin, and urine samples to meditate specific chromosomes. Endocrine system A chemical communication electronic network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Hormones Chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or issue of the body. Pituitary gland The major component of the endocrine system, or â€Å"master gland,” which secretes hormones that control harvest-tide and other parts of the endocrine system. LO 2 The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands psych 2. www. mhhe. com/psychlife Another of the body’s communication systems, the endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Its job is to secrete hormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or harvest-feast of the body. It also influencesâ€and is influenced byâ€the functioning of the nervous system. As chemical messengers, hormones are like neurotransmitters, although their speed and mode of transmission are quite different.Whereas neural messages are careful in thousandths of a second, hormonal communication theory may take minutes to reach their destination. Furthermore, neural messages move through neurons in specific lines (like a signal carried by wires strung along telephone poles), whereas hormones travel throughout the body, similar to the way receiving set waves are transmitted across the entire landscape. Just as radio waves heighten a response only when a radio is tuned to the correct station, hormones flowing through the bloodstream activate only those cells which are receptive and â€Å"tuned” to the appropriate hormonal message.A key component of the endocrine system is the small hypophysis gland. The pituitary gland has sometimes been called the â€Å"master gland” because it controls the functioning of the rest of the endocrine system. But the pituitar y gland is more than just the taskmaster of other glands; it has important functions in its own right. For instance, hormones secreted by the pituitary gland control growth. Extremely short people and un commonly tall ones usually have pituitary gland abnormalities. other(a) endocrine glands, shown in Figure 4, affect emotional reactions, intimate urges, and energy levels.Although hormones are produced naturally by the endocrine system, there are a variety of mawkish hormones that people may choose to take. For example, physicians sometimes prescribe hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to treat symptoms of menopause in older women. narrate artificial hormones can be harmful. For example, some athletes use testosterone, a male hormone, and drugs known as steroids, which act like testosterone. For athletes and others who want to bulk up their appearance, steroids provide a way to add muscle weight and increase strength.However, these drugs can lead to heart attacks, strokes, cancer, and even violent behavior, making them passing dangerous (Kolata, 2002; Arangure, 2005; Klotz, Garle, & Granath, 2006; Pagonis, Angelopoulos, & Koukoulis, 2006). The Endocrine System Steroids can provide added muscle strength, but they have dangerous side effects. A number of well-known athletes have been accused of using the drugs illegally. Jose Conseco is one of the few major league baseball players to swallow steroid use. Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 61 Anterior Pituitary Gland germinates 6 hormones with diverse actionsHypothalamus expels several hormones that stimulate or inhibit anterior pituitary function Posterior Pituitary Gland oozes oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during birth; also secretes antidiuretic hormone, which increases water system retention in the kidney Pineal Makes melatonin, which regulates periodical rhythms Parathyroids (behind the thyroid) Make parathyroid hormone, which increases blood atomic number 20 Thyroid Regulates metabolic rate and growth Stomach and Small Intestine Secrete hormones that facilitate digestion and regulate pancreatic activityHeart Makes atrial natriuretic peptide, which lowers blood sodium suprarenal gland Glands Medulla Makes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which mediate the â€Å"fight-or-flight” response Cortex Makes aldosterone, which regulates sodium and potassium residual in the blood; also makes glucocorticoids (such as cortisol), which regulate growth, metabolism, development, immune function, and the body’s response to stress Liver and Kidneys Secrete erythropoietin, which regulates production of red blood cells Pancreas Makes insulin Ovaries Produce estrogens such as progesterone, which control reproduction in femalesAdipose Tissue Produces adipokines (for example, leptin), which regulate relish and metabolic rate Testes Produce androgens, such as testosterone, which control reproduction in males Figure 4 Location and function of the major endocrine glands. The pituitary gland controls the functioning of the other endocrine glands and in turn is adjust by the brain. Steroids can provide added muscle and strength, but they have dangerous side effects. (Source: Adapted from Brooker et al, 2008, p. 1062) recap Explain how the structures of the nervous system are linked together. The nervous system is make up of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral 62 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior nervous system is made up of the somatic division, which controls voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs, and the autonomic division, which controls involuntary functions such as those of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs. (p. 56) ¦ The autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system is gain subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.The sympathetic division prepares the body in emerg ency situations, and the parasympathetic division helps the body return to its typical resting state. (p. 58) ¦ Behavioral genetics contemplates the hereditary floor of human personality traits and behavior. (p. 59) Describe the operation of the endocrine system and how it affects behavior. ¦ The endocrine system secretes hormones, chemicals that regulate the functioning of the body, via the bloodstream. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormones and influences the release of hormones by other endocrine glands, and in turn is regulated by the hypothalamus. (p. 61) valuate 1. If you put your hand on a red-hot piece of metal, the immediate response of pulling it away would be . an example of a(n) 2. The central nervous system is composed of the and . 3. In the peripheral nervous system, the division controls voluntary movements, whereas the division controls organs that keep us alive and function without our awareness. 4. Maria saw a young boy run into the street and get h it by a car. When she got to the fallen child, she was in a state of panic. She was sweating, and her heart was racing. Her biological state resulted from the energizing of what division of the nervous system? . Parasympathetic b. Central c. Sympathetic rethink In what ways is the â€Å"fight-or-flight” response helpful to existence in emergency situations? Answers to Evaluate Questions 1. reflex; 2. brain, spinal cord; 3. somatic, autonomic; 4. sympathetic key terms Central nervous system (CNS) p. 56 Spinal cord p. 56 Reflex p. 57 Sensory (afferent) neurons p. 57 Motor (efferent) neurons p. 57 Interneurons p. 57 Peripheral nervous system p. 58 Somatic division p. 58 Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 63 Autonomic division p. 58 Sympathetic division p. 58 Parasympathetic division p. 58 Behavioral genetics p. 9 Endocrine system p. 61 Hormones p. 61 Pituitary gland p. 61 module 7 The Brain learning outcomes 7. 1 Illustrate how researchers identify the major p arts and functions of the brain. 7. 2 Describe the central warmheartedness of the brain. 7. 3 Describe the limbic system of the brain. 7. 4 Describe the rational lens intellectual rational cerebral cortex of the brain. 7. 5 cognize neuroplasticity and its implications. 7. 6 Explain how the two hemispheres of the brain operate interdependently and the implications for human behavior. It is not much to look at. Soft, spongy, mottled, and pinkish-gray in color, it hardly can be said to possess much in the way of physical beauty.Despite its physical appearance, however, it ranks as the greatest natural enquire that we know and has a beauty and mundaneness all its own. The object to which this description applies: the brain. The brain is trusty for our loftiest thoughtsâ€and our most aboriginal urges. It is the super of the intricate run(a)s of the human body. Many billions of neurons make up a structure weighing just three pounds in the average adult. However, it i s not the number of cells that is the most astounding thing about the brain but its ability to allow the human intellect to flourish by head our behavior and thoughts.We turn now to a consideration of the particular structures of the brain and the primary functions to which they are related. However, a caution is in order. Although we’ll discuss specific theatres of the brain in relation to specific behaviors, this approach is an oversimplification. No wide one-to-one correspondence exists between a distinct part of the brain and a particular behavior. Instead, behavior is produced by complex interconnections among sets of neurons in many bowls of the brain: our behavior, emotions, thoughts, hopes, and dreams are produced by a variety of neurons throughout the nervous system working in concert.LO 1 Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain Modern brain- examine techniques provide a window into the living brain. Using these techniques, invest igators can take a â€Å"snapshot” of the interRemember that EEG, fMRI, nal whole kit and caboodle of the brain without having to cut open a person’s skull. The dearie, and TMS differ in terms most important exhaustning techniques, illustrated in Figure 1, are the elecof whether they examine troencephalogram (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET), functional brain structures or brain magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and transcranial magnetic stimulation functioning. maging (TMS). The electroencephalogram (EEG) records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. Although traditionally the EEG could produce only a graph of electrical wave patterns, new techniques are now used to transform the brain’s electrical activity into a natural representation of the brain that allows more precise diagnosis of disorders such as epilepsy and learning disabilities. s tudy aler t 64 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior A EEG B fMRI scan C TMS machine D PET scan Figure 1 Brain scans produced by different techniques. A) A computerproduced EEG image. (B) The fMRI scan uses a magnetic field to provide a detailed view of brain activity on a moment-by-moment basis. (C) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), the newest type of scan, produces a temporary disruption in an area of the brain, allowing researchers to see what activities are controlled by that area. TMS also has the potential to treat some psychological disorders. (D) The PET scan displays the functioning of the brain at a given moment. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment.PET scans begin with the injection of a radioactive (but safe) liquid into the bloodstream, which makes its way to the brain. By locating radiation within the brain, a computer can determine which are the more active regions, providing a striking picture of the brain at work. utilitarian magnetic resonance imagi ng (fMRI) scans provide a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a muscular magnetic field at the body. With fMRI scanning, it is possible to produce vivid, detailed images of the functioning of the brain.Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is one of the newest types of scan. By exposing a lilliputian region of the brain to a strong magnetic field, TMS causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity. Researchers then are able to note the effects of this interruption on normal brain functioning. The procedure is sometimes called a â€Å"virtual lesion” because it produces effects analogous to what would occur if areas The brain (shown here in cross section) may not be much to of the brain were physically cut. The enormous look at, but it represents one of the great marvels of human advantage of TMS, of course, is that the virtual development.Why do most scientist reckon that it will be difficult, if not imp ossible, to recur the brain’s abilities? cut is only temporary. Module 7 the brain 65 noetic cortex (the â€Å"new brain”) LO 2 The Central Core: Our â€Å"Old Brain” Although the capabilities of the human brain remote exceed those of the brain of any other species, humans share some basic functions, such as breathing, eating, and sleeping, with more primitive carnals. Not surprisingly, those activities are directed by a comparatively primitive part of the brain.A portion of the brain known as the central center (see Figure 2) is quite similar in all vertebrates Central core (species with backbones). The central core is sometimes referred to as the â€Å"old (the â€Å"old brain”) brain” because its evolution can be traced back some 500 million years to primFigure 2 The major itive structures found in nonhuman species. divisions of the brain: the If we were to move up the spinal cord from the base of the skull to locate cerebral cortex and the the structures of the central core of the brain, the first part we would come central core. Source: Seeley, to would be the hindbrain, which contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum Stephens, & Tate, 2000. ) (see Figure 3). The medulla controls a number of critical body functions, the most important of which are breathing and heartbeat. The pons comes next, connectedness the two halves of the cerebellum, which lies adjacent to it. Containing large bundles of nerves, the pons acts as a transmitter of motor information, coordinating muscles and integrating movement between the right and left Central core The â€Å"old brain,” which halves of the body.It is also involved in regulating sleep. controls basic functions such as eating The cerebellum is found just to a higher place the medulla and behind the pons. and sleeping and is common to all Without the help of the cerebellum we would be otiose to walk a straight vertebrates. line without staggering and lurching forwa rd, for it is the job of the cerebelCerebellum (ser uh BELL um) The lum to control bodily balance. It constantly monitors feedback from the part of the brain that controls bodily muscles to coordinate their placement, movement, and tension. In fact, balance. rinking too much alcohol seems to depress the activity of the cerebellum, leading to the un energize gait and movement characteristic of drunkenness. Hypothalamus Responsible for regulating basic biological needs: hunger, thirst, temperature control Cerebral Cortex Pituitary Gland â€Å" gain” gland that regulates other endocrine glands head teacher Callosum Bridge of fibers passing information between the two cerebral hemispheres Pons manifold in sleep and arousal Thalamus put across center for cortex; handles incoming and outgoing signals Reticular Formation A network of neurons related to sleep, arousal, and attention Cerebellum Controls bodily balanceSpinal heap Responsible for communication between brain and rest of body; involved with simple reflexes Medulla Responsible for regulating by and large unconscious functions such as breathing and circulation Figure 3 66 The major structures in the brain. (Source: Johnson, 2000. ) Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior The cerebellum is also involved in several quick-witted functions, ranging from the analysis and Like an ever-vigilant guard, the coordination of sensory information to problem reticular formation is made up of solving (Bower & Parsons, 2004; Paquier & Marien, 2005; Vandervert, Schimpf, & Liu, 2007). roups of nerve cells that can activate The reticular formation extends from the other parts of the brain immediately medulla through the pons, passing through the middle section of the brainâ€or midbrainâ€and to produce general bodily arousal. into the front-most part of the brain, called the forebrain. Like an ever-vigilant guard, the reticular formation is made up of groups of nerve cells that can activate other parts of the brain immediately to produce general bodily arousal.If, for example, we Reticular formation The part of the brain extending from the medulla are startled by a loud noise, the reticular formation can alert a heightened through the pons and made up state of awareness to determine whether a response is necessary. The reticuof groups of nerve cells that can lar formation serves a different function when we are sleeping, seeming to immediately activate other parts of the brain to produce general bodily filter out background stimuli to allow us to sleep undisturbed. arousal.Hidden within the forebrain, the thalamus acts primarily as a relay staThalamus The part of the brain tion for information about the senses. Messages from the eyes, ears, and skin located in the middle of the central travel to the thalamus to be communicated upward to higher parts of the core that acts primarily to relay brain. The thalamus also integrates information from higher parts of the information about the senses. brain, sorting it out so that it can be sent to the cerebellum and medulla. Hypothalamus A tiny part of the The hypothalamus is located just downstairs the thalamus.Although tiny†brain, located below the thalamus, that about the size of a fingertipâ€the hypothalamus plays an extremely impor- maintains homeostasis and produces tant role. One of its major functions is to maintain homeostasis, a steady and regulates vital behavior, such as eating, drinking, and sexual behavior. internal environment for the body. The hypothalamus helps provide a conLimbic system The part of the brain stant body temperature and monitors the amount of nutrients stored in the that controls eating, aggression, and cells.A second major function is equally important: the hypothalamus produces and regulates behavior that is critical to the basic survival of the spe- reproduction. cies, such as eating, self-protection, and sex. LO 3 The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core The limbic sys tem of the brain consists of a serial of doughnut-shaped structures that include the amygdala and hippocampus, the limbic system borders the top of the central core and has connections with the cerebral cortex (see Figure 4).The structures of the limbic system jointly control a variety of basic functions relating to emotions and self-preservation, such as eating, aggression, and reproduction. Injury to the limbic sysFrontal lobe tem can produce striking changes in behavior. For example, injury to the amygdala, which is involved in fear and aggression, can turn animals that are usually docile and domesticate into belligerent savages. Conversely, animals that are usually barbarian and uncontrollable may become humble and obedient following injury to the amygdala (Bedard & Persinger, 1995; Amygdala Gontkovsky, 2005).Hippocampus The limbic system is involved in Spinal cord several important functions, including Figure 4 The limbic system consists of a series of doughnut-shaped structures that are involved in selfpreservation, learning, memory, and the experience of pleasure. 67 Module 7 the brain self-preservation, learning, memory, and the experience of pleasure. These functions are hardly unique to humans; in fact, the limbic system is sometimes referred to as the â€Å"animal brain” because its structures and functions are so similar to those of other mammals.To identify the part of the brain that provides the complex and subtle capabilities that are uniquely human, we need to turn to another structureâ€the cerebral cortex. LO 4 Cerebral cortex The â€Å"new brain,” responsible for the most advanced information processing in the brain; contains quaternity lobes. The Cerebral Cortex: Our â€Å"New Brain” As we have proceeded up the spinal cord and into the brain, our discussion has concern on areas of the brain that control functions similar to those found in less cultivate organisms.But where, you may be asking, are the Lob es The cardinal major sections of portions of the brain that enable humans to do what they do best and that the cerebral cortex: frontal, parietal, distinguish humans from all other animals? Those unique features of the blase, and occipital. human brainâ€indeed, the very capabilities that allow you to come up with Motor area The part of the cortex that such a question in the first placeâ€are collective in the ability to think, evalis largely responsible for the body’s uate, and make complex judgments. The principal location of these abilities, voluntary movement. long with many others, is the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is referred to as the â€Å"new brain” because of its relatively recent evolution. It But where, you may be asking, are consists of a mass of profoundly folded, rippled, convoluted tissue. Although only about one-twelfth of the portions of the brain that enable an inch thick, it would, if flattened out, cover an area more than two fee t square. This configurahumans to do what they do best and tion allows the surface area of the cortex to be that distinguish humans from all considerably greater than it would be if it were smoother and more uniformly jammed into the other animals? kull. The uneven shape also permits a high level of integration of neurons, allowing sophisticated information processing. The cortex has four major sections called lobes. If we take a side view of the psych 2. 0 brain, the frontal lobes lie at the front center of the cortex and the parietal lobes www. mhhe. com/psychlife lie behind them. The temporal lobes are found in the lower center portion of the cortex, with the occipital lobes fiction behind them. These four sets of lobes are physically separated by deep grooves called sulci. Figure 5 shows the four areas.Another way to suck the brain is in terms of the functions associated with a particular area. Figure 5 also shows the specialized regions within the lobes related to specific f unctions and areas of the body. Three major areas are known: the motor areas, the sensory areas, and the association areas. Although we will discuss these areas as though they were separate and independent, keep in mind that this is an oversimplification. In most instances, The Brain behavior is influenced simultaneously by several structures and areas within the brain, operating interdependently.The Motor Area of the Cortex If you look at the frontal lobe in Figure 5, you will see a shaded portion labeled motor area. This part of the cortex is largely responsible for the body’s voluntary movement. Every portion of the motor area corresponds to a specific locus within the body. If we were to insert an electrode into a particular part of the motor area of the cortex and apply mild electrical stimulation, there would be involuntary 68 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior somatosensory area Somatosensory association area Motor area Frontal Lobe Broca’s areaParietal Lobe Pr imary auditory area Wernicke’s area auditive association area Temporal Lobe visual area Visual association area Occipital Lobe Figure 5 The cerebral cortex of the brain. The major physical structures of the cerebral cortex are called lobes. This figure also illustrates the functions associated with particular areas of the cerebral cortex. Are any areas of the cerebral cor\r\n'