Tissue engineering for skin

weave engine room for skinTISSUE ENGINEERING OF THE SKIN (MECH 5510M) LITERATURE REVIEW SID 200507638 solicit This essay is a literature review on the tissue engine room for skin rehabilitation, with regard to the clinical need, approaches various commercially-available products. Skin is undoubtedly crucial in the maintenance of the bodys internal balance also valueing externally. It gets severely compromised in burns, non-healing ulcers, reconstructive surgeries etc. bringing down the patients quality of life drastically. Tissue engineering is a more efficient approach than traditional skin en imbed. It is a research area that is forever evolving, where researchers are always working towards one unite goal, i.e. to develop in bulk quantities, a skin substitute that can be handled with less care, integrates faster with the bodys natural matrix and costs reasonable. INTRODUCTIONA lot of research has been undertaken in the past to realize that it is possible to generate ski n by applying engineering techniques. This is done by growing skin at a faster rate than normal and in an artificial manner4. Skin is the largest most widely spread organ in the world body. Its role is to protect the bodys internal environment from harshness of the external conditions and restrict entry of microbes, by acting as a barrier4. Several situations diseases arise, due to which the skin gets irreparably damaged, gum olibanum requiring interventional help in restoring it back to health. Tissue engineering is the application of engineering techniques to develop biological substitutes1. Burns (acute) ulcers (chronic) are the most common conditions which enquire the surrogate of skin. In developing countries (Fig 1)2,3, due to lack of knowledge on safety, a very high number of burns accidents occur every year, and mostly of inglorious nature. The fatality is mainly due to pain, infection, loss of body fluids incapability of the body to self-regenerate large amounts o f lost skin5. Thus, experimentation in this field was triggered. Many skin diseases, which hap to necrosis, pigmentation problems, also require engineered skin4. CLINICAL NEED FOR SKIN TISSUE ENGINEERINGIn most incidents, both the epicutaneal and cutaneous layers require replacement. Conventionally, the treatment regularity involved skin grafting i.e. autologous (self) split-thickness and full-thickness grafting, where healthy skin was taken from other areas of the body and replaced at the injury site. Split-thickness (comprising of the epi derma a part of the dermis) grafting is not a logical system to use, when a large area of the body (50%) is affected less healthy skin is available. But, it is todays gold standard approach6. bring forward trauma, due to grafting, can be painful to a patient who is already in a critical state. Also, scar formation post-operatively is another reason for its cut back usage. Full-thickness grafts are suitable to use when the burned area is l ess than 2% of the total area. These problems could be avoided if skin (of full or partial thickness) were grown by artificial means and substituted in the place of real skin6.LITERATURE REVIEWThe skin can be broadly divided into cardinal layers i.e. the epidermis dermis. The epidermis is made up of several layers and may/may not consist of extra- stallular matrix (ECM). The layers from surface to deep are cornified, granular, spinosal and basalar layers. The most commonly found cells here are the keratinocytes melanocytes. The dermis is constituted by sicks proteins. Within the dermis, fibroblasts are most commonly found8. Several skin substitutes exist for wound coverage in tissue engineering4. It can be broadly divided into temporary and permanent skin substitutes. The table below ( tabularize 1) is a list of all the material options available for skin replacement Table 1 Temporary and Permanent Skin Substitutes8 Permanent tissue engineering of the skin can be broadly divi ded into three categories6, 8 epidermic replacements Generally, using autologous keratinocyte sheets. Replaces only the epidermis, but take rates are very poor, suitable for superficial burn treatment only. dermic replacements Replaces only the dermal layer. In most cases, it is applied along with an cutaneal graft to improve take rates.Dermo-epidermal (bilayer skin) replacements Replaces both the epidermis and dermis. Suitable for full-thickness burns.Skin replacements have two main components i.e. cells and the scaffold. In wound coverage, three types of cells can be used autologous, allogenic or stem cells. Autologous (self) cell usage is the most preferred as it is easily accepted by the patients body does not need incite and anti-immune responses. Allogenic (donor) cells, if used directly can lead to the eventual rejection of the transplant. However, it is used in an single-celled fashion, where the donor keratinocytes are take away prior to culturing9. Stem cells have trans-germal pluripotential properties are currently being researched for their poteintial application in skin engineering. Less information is obtained on keratinocyte stem cells. The suggested reason for their longevity is that KSC cycles very slowly and is resistant to mutations8. The type of biodegradable scaffold, either natural or synthetic permits cells to attach onto them and facilitate use during transplantation6, 9.Rheinwald Green Experiment8The experiment carried out in 1975 by Rheinwald and Green where piece (autologous) keratinocytes were produced in-vitro, proved to be a breakthrough in this field and modified versions of this method are used nowadays. Extracted keratinocytes were allowed to form colonies on a plastic substrate. These colonies expanded to form a sheet. Stratifications arose as the daughter cells, usually at the centre, started multiplying vertically and a 12-cell layer was achieved. To increase the multiplicative capacity of keratinocytes, a feed er layer (comprising murine Swiss 3T3 lethally irradiated fibroblasts) mitogens were introduced to the finis. Epidermal Replacements A small skin biopsy of the patient is harvested, which is civil to produce a patch. The full-thickness biopsy of the patients skin is cut finely and enzymes are added to cause disaggregation of the skin into cells. A feeder layer, as mentioned previously, is used to culture these cells in culture flasks. To promote proliferation, epidermal growth factors, enzymes such as insulin, hydrocortisone, cholera-toxin and bovine serum are used. After colonies have been formed, trypsin is added. The KCs are cultured to confluence and later, the sheets are removed from the flasks (using dispase) for use8. The result of this method compared to the split-thickness gold standard is quite poor, as the dermal layer is missing and it depends upon the health of the dermis existing. Also, it is prone to scarring, takes too long, expensive, extremely delicate and has v arying take rates6. Dermal Replacements It was claimed, in 1952, that using only pure epidermal sheets, success would be lesser than compared to those with a dermis10. To accentuate the success of the epidermal transplantation, dermal replacements were constructed. A dermal replacement that covered the affected area with cryoprserved allogenic skin was used minus the epidermal layer was used11, 12. Also, an observation that allogenic keratinocytes elicited more anti-immune response than allogenic fibroblasts, was reported. To reconstruct the dermis, the two-stage Integra application is most widely used now13. This dermis functions as a scaffold for the attachment of keratinocytes and improves vascularization9. Burke et al (1981) developed a dermal replacement, where a collagen sponge was covered with a silastic layer (synthetic). The sponge behaves as a scaffold for the fibroblast cells. This technique was commercialized into a product (Integra Dermal Regeneration Template) 9, 14. A modification to this employed GAGs along with collagen, in the scaffold. Here, a precipitated mixture of bovine collagen fibres and a chondrotin-6-sulfate (GAG from shark cartilage) was freeze dried. This generated a collagen-GAG sponge scaffold, which had a mean pore size. Cross-linkage to strengthen the matrix was done using gluteraldehyde. Finally, the silastic layer was applied. This is available as a product Integra Artificial Skin (Chamberlain and Yannas, 1999)9, 15. accord to Heimbach et al (1988), this is most suitable for burns patients. The concept of using absorbable polymer scaffolds (synthetic) such as polyglactin 910 or polyglycolic acid was the next improvement in dermal replacements. Here, allogenic fibroblasts are enzymatically cultured and this culture is mounted on the polymer scaffold for integration). Due to this, an ECM consisting of collagen, growth factors, GAGs etc. is formed, which stays active even after it is frozen17. This was commercialized as Derm agraft 8, 16. Two-stage dermis application has shown proven results, and now clinical trials are being conducted to examine the applicability of one-stage dermis, such as Matriderm 6. The dermal replacements essentially require an epidermal covering. Dermo-Epidermal ReplacementsThese are available both as autologous or off-the-shelf products. In autologous DED replacements, both keratinocytes and fibroblasts are harvested from the patient and are added to the collagen-GAG scaffold. civilisation of this in culture medium is for around four weeks. This is a more permanent solution 6, 18, 19. The first model of todays Apligraf was done by Bell et al (1979)20. DEDs use human keratinocytes fibroblast cells (allogenic) within a scaffold. Morphological studies after using Apligraf reported the presence of a well-defined epidermis, with all four layers, as in the natural skin, and seeded allogenic fibroblasts aligned in a normal manner within the collagen matrix 8, 21.COMMERCIALLY AVAILA BLE PRODUCTSCONCLUSION FUTURE AIMSTissue engineering of the skin was the first to be approved by the FDA has evolved a great deal, from the first application of only cultured keratinocytes to the use of biological skin substitutes. query is dormant in-progress to develop skin in bulk quantities, mainly for burns patients, and to mimic all the mechanical and properties and functions of the natural skin. The state of the art results can be achieved now by using cultured keratinocyte cells with the dermal replacement, Integra, in full-thickness, small and clean wounds. This has shown optimal results in cosmesis and wound closure8. However, this branch of tissue engineering is still very much in a developing level. Studies to analyse how to reduce various guesss in patients, who receive donor cells should be done. Also, a main hassle is in getting the cells to attach to the dermis, post-transplantation. Burns patients are highly susceptible to various problems, thus there is a nee d for materials that present lower risk than animal/human materials. Mainly, it is ideal if the graft starts to behave like natural skin soon after grafting, which is possible only with rapid vascularization and cell implantation. Also, low expense of these products is extremely desirable.REFERENCESNerem R M. 1992. Tissue engineering in the USA. Medical Biological Engineering Computing, Vol 30, pp. CE8-CE 12.Burn Incidence and Treatment in the unify States 1999 Fact Sheet (The Burn Foundation, Philadelphia, 1999).Rose, J. K. Herndon, D. N. Advances in the treatment of burn patients. Burns 23 (suppl. 1), S19-S26 (1997).McNeil S. 2007. Progress and opportunities for tissue-engineered skin. Nature. Vol 445 (22), pp. 874-880.Pomahac B, T. Svensj, F. Yao, H. Brown and E. Eriksson. 1998. Critical Reviews in Oral Bioogy and Medicine. Vol9 pp. 333-344.Bottcher-Haberzeth S, T Bedermann, E Reichmann. 2009. Tissue engineering of skin. Burns, doi10.1016/j.burns.2009.08.016Burn Injury Occurre nce is higher in Developing Countries. Available from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BurnPrice R, E Anthony, S Myers and H Navsaria. Chapter 17 Tissue engineering for Skin Transplantation. In Clemens van Blitterswijk, Peter Thomsen, Anders Lindahl, Jeffrey Hubbell, David F. Williams, Ranieri Cancedda, Joost D. de Bruijn and Jrme Sohier eds., Tissue Engineering. Elsevier Inc, Pp. 507-532.Morgan J R, R L Sheridian, R G Tompkins, M L Yarmush and J F Burke. 2004. Chapter 7 Applications of Materials in Medicine, Biology and Artificial Organs (7.12). In B D Ratner, A S Hoffman, F J Schoen and J E Lemons eds., Biomaterials Science. Elsevier Academic Press, pp. 602-614.Billingham, R.E. and Reynolds, J. 1952. Transplantation studies on sheets of pure epidermal epithelium and on epidermal cell suspensions. British Journal of plastic Surgery, Vol 5, pp. 25 36.Cuono , C.B. , Langdon , R. , e t al. 1987. Composite autologous-allogeneic skin replacement development and clinical application. Plasti c Reconstruction Surgery, Vol 80, pp 626 637.Heck , E.L. , Bergstresser , P.R. , e t al. 1985. Composite skin graft frozen dermal allografts support the engraftment and expansion of autologous epidermis . Journal of Trauma, Vol 25, pp. 106 112.Heimbach, D .M., W arden, G .D., e t al. ( 2003 ). Multicenter postapproval clinical trial of Integra dermal regeneration template for burn treatment. Journal of Burn Care Rehabilitation, Vol 24, pp. 42 48 .Burke, J.F. , Yannas , I.V. , e t al. ( 1981 b ). Successful use of a physiologically acceptable artificial skin in the treatment of extensive burn injury. Annals of Surgery, Vol 194, pp. 413 428.Chamberlain L J, Yannas I V. 1999. Preparation of collagen-glycosaminoglycan copolymers for tissue regeneration. In Methods in Tissue Engineering, J R Morgan and M L Yarmush eds. Humana Press, pp. 3-17.Hansbrough, J.F. , Cooper , M.L., et al. 1992a. Evaluation of a biodegradable matrix containing cultured human fibroblasts as a dermal replaceme nt beneath meshed skin grafts on athymic mice. Surgery, Vol. 111, pp. 438 446.Cooper , M.L. , Hansbrough , J.F. , e t al. 1991. In vivo optimization of a living dermal substitute employing cultured human fibroblasts on a biodegradable polyglycolic acid or polyglactin mesh. Biomaterials, Vol. 12, pp. 243 248.Pham C, Greenwood J, Cleland H, Woodruff P, Maddern G. 2007. Bioengineered skin substitutes for the management of burns a systematic review. Burns Vol. 33, pp. 946-57.Boyce ST. 2001 Design principles for composition and functioning of cultured skin substitutes. Burns Vol. 27, pp. 523-33.Bell , E. , Ivarsson , B. , e t al. 1979. Production of a tissue like structure by contraction of collagen lattices by human fibroblasts of different proliferative potential in vitro. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, Vol. 76, pp. 1274 1278.Parenteau , N.L. , Bilbo , P. , et al. 1992. The organotypic culture of human skin keratinocytes and fibroblasts to achieve form and function . Cytotechnology, Vol. 9, pp. 163 171.Apligraf Structure vs. Skin Structure. Available from http//www.organogenesis.com/images/apligraf_main3.jpgFig. 3, Collagen GAG scaffolds for Tissue Engineering. Pek et al, 2004, Biomaterials. Available from http//web.mit.edu/dmse/csg/Tissue_Regeneration.htmlFig. 3, Collagen GAG scaffolds for Tissue Engineering. OBrien et al, 2004, Biomaterials. Available fromhttp//web.mit.edu/dmse/csg/Tissue_Regeneration.html